Cannabis
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Cannabis
Drawing of C. sativa
Chemical Nomenclature
Common names Cannabis, marijuana, weed, pot, Mary Jane, grass, herb, devil's lettuce
Routes of Administration


Smoked
Dosage
WARNING: Always start with lower doses due to differences between individual body weight, tolerance, metabolism, and personal sensitivity. See responsible use section.
DISCLAIMER: PW's dosage information is a summary of data gathered from users and resources. It is not a recommendation and should be verified with other sources for accuracy.
Threshold 0.025 - 0.033 g
Light 0.033 - 0.066 g
Common 0.066 - 0.1 g
Strong 0.1 - 0.15 g
Heavy 0.15 g +
Duration
Total 1 - 4 hours
Onset 0 - 10 minutes
Peak 15 - 30 minutes
Afterglow 45 - 180 minutes
Oral
Dosage
WARNING: Always start with lower doses due to differences between individual body weight, tolerance, metabolism, and personal sensitivity. See responsible use section.
DISCLAIMER: PW's dosage information is a summary of data gathered from users and resources. It is not a recommendation and should be verified with other sources for accuracy.
Common 5 - 10 mg (THC)
Duration
Total 4 - 10 hours
Onset 30 - 120 minutes
Peak 2 - 5 hours
Afterglow 6 - 12 hours









Summary sheet: Cannabis

Cannabis (also known as marijuana[1], weed[2], pot[3], grass[4], herb[5] and by numerous other names) is a preparation of the cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug and as medicine.[6][7] Pharmacologically, the principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC); it is one of 483 known compounds in the plant,[8] including at least 84 other cannabinoids such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV),[9][10] and cannabigerol (CBG).

Contemporary uses of cannabis are as a recreational or medicinal drug, and as part of religious or spiritual rites. The earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd millennium BC.[11] Since the early 20th century, cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions with the possession, use, and sale of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive cannabinoids currently illegal in most countries of the world. The United Nations has said that cannabis is the most used illicit drug in the world.[12][13] In 2004, the United Nations estimated that global consumption of cannabis indicated that approximately 4% of the adult world population (162 million people) used cannabis annually and that approximately 0.6% (22.5 million) of people used cannabis daily.[14]

Chemistry

Cannabis plants contain a number of different specific compounds at various ratios. Cannabis contains more than 460 compounds;[15] at least 80 of these are cannabinoids,[16][17] chemical compounds that interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.[18] The most common of these are listed below:

Tetrahydrocannabinol
Cannabidiol

Others

  • CBN (Cannabinol)
  • CBG (Cannabigerol)
  • CBC (Cannabichromene)
  • CBL (Cannabicyclol)
  • CBV (Cannabivarin)
  • THCV (Tetrahydrocannabivarin)
  • CBDV (Cannabidivarin)
  • CBCV (Cannabichromevarin)
  • CBGV (Cannabigerovarin)
  • CBGM (Cannabigerol Monomethyl Ether)

Pharmacology

The most psychoactive cannabinoid found in the cannabis plant is tetrahydrocannabinol (or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), commonly known as THC.[19] Other cannabinoids include delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), cannabicyclol (CBL), cannabichromene (CBC) and cannabigerol (CBG); they have less psychotropic effects than THC, but may play a role in the overall effect of cannabis.[20] The most studied are THC, CBD and CBN.[21]

THC appears to alter mood and cognition through its agonist actions on the CB1 receptors, which inhibit a secondary messenger system (adenylate cyclase) in a dose dependent manner. Via CB1 activation, THC indirectly increases dopamine release and produces psychotropic effects. Cannabidiol acts as an allosteric modulator of the mu and delta opioid receptors.[22] THC also potentiates the effects of the glycine receptors.[23] However, the role of these interactions and how they result in the cannabinoid high continues to remain elusive.

Subjective effects

The effects listed below are based upon the subjective effects index and personal experiences of PsychonautWiki contributors. The listed effects will rarely (if ever) occur all at once, but heavier dosages will increase the chances and are more likely to induce a full range of effects.

Physical effects

  • Spontaneous tactile sensations - The "body high" of cannabis is extremely variable in both its style and intensity. It depends entirely on the individual strain of plant and does not manifest itself consistently. In general, however, it can be described as a pleasurable, warm, soft, and all-encompassing tingling sensation. It maintains a consistent presence that quickly rises with the onset and hits its limit once the peak has been reached before immediately dissipating.
  • Sedation - Although certain strains of cannabis present mild encouraged stimulation at low to moderate doses, for the most part, the effects on the user's energy levels are primarily sedating. This encourages one to relax but can, however, be suppressed by simply forcing oneself to engage in physical activities.
  • Motor control loss - This substance causes a partial to moderate suppression of motor control which intensifies proportional to dose, but rarely results in a complete inability to walk and perform basic movements.
  • Appetite enhancement - The feeling of increased appetite following the use of cannabis has been documented for hundreds of years[24] and is known colloquially as "the munchies" in popular American and United Kingdom culture. Clinical studies and survey data have found that cannabis increases food enjoyment and interest in food.[25] This is thought to be due to the way in which endocannabinoids in the hypothalamus activate cannabinoid receptors that are responsible for maintaining food intake.[26]
  • Nausea suppression - Cannabis is effective for suppressing nausea induced by both general illness and substances. It is considered an effective treatment for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV)[27] and is a reasonable option in those who do not improve following preferential treatment.[28]
  • Vasodilation - THC decreases blood pressure which dilates the blood vessels and increases blood flow throughout the body. The arteries in the eyeball expand from the decreased blood pressure. Studies in the 1970s showed marijuana, when smoked or eaten, effectively lowers intraocular pressure by about 25%, as much as standard medications.[29] These enlarged arteries often produce a bloodshot red eye effect. It is precisely this effect on the human eye that makes cannabis an effective medicine for glaucoma.[30]
  • Pain relief - This substance has been reported as useful for treating certain headaches and chronic pain, including pain caused by neuropathy and possibly fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis.[31][32]
  • Perception of increased weight or Perception of decreased weight - Depending on the specific strain of cannabis, one can find themselves with a body which can feel either physically heavier or lighter than it usually would in a style that is entirely dependent upon dose.
  • Changes in gravity - At extremely high doses, many users report a feeling of being pulled backwards across vast distances at powerful speeds. This sensation progressively increases in intensity and eventually becomes unbearable if one leans backwards or lies down; however, it disappears altogether once the user sits up or leans forward.
  • Dehydration- This is known colloquially as "cotton mouth" in popular American and United Kingdom culture.
  • Seizure suppression - There are many anecdotal reports of the successful treatment of seizures in epilespy with the use of low THC/high CBD marijuana.[33][34][35] However, there is not enough scientific evidence to draw conclusions about its safety or efficacy. Studies in animals have found that cannabidiol,[36][37] tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV),[38] and other cannabinoids have anticonvulsant properties.[39]

Cognitive effects

  • Emotion enhancement - The most prominent cognitive component of the cannabis experience is the way in which it enhances the emotions one is already feeling proportional to dose. This can result in euphoria, extreme laughter, and increased immersion within tasks and activities or it can result in anxiety and paranoia depending on the user's current state of mind.
  • Paranoia - All cannabinoids are capable of inducing paranoia at high doses or with chronic administration.
  • Dream suppression - It is commonly reported that regular cannabis use before sleep results in a complete absence of dreams. A day or two of abstaining from cannabis results in an intensification of dreams for a short period of time. This claim is supported through studies that demonstrate that measurably reduced eye movement activity and REM states occur when one falls asleep in the THC condition. This state is strongly associated with dreaming. The same study also reported a REM rebound effect; there is more REM activity during the withdrawal from THC.[40]
  • Laughter
  • Thought connectivity
  • Thought deceleration
  • Immersion enhancement
  • Conceptual thinking
  • Mindfulness
  • Information processing suppression
  • Feelings of impending doom
  • Anxiety or Anxiety suppression
  • Memory suppression - Cannabis is known to suppress short-term memory due to inhibition of glutamate neurotransmission in the hippocampus. This effect primarily effects short-term memory, making ego death or long-term memory suppression very unlikely.
  • Time distortion - Cannabis has been commonly reported to alter one's sense of time. The distortion that occurs is generally mild, and is most commonly reported to be in the the form of time expansion.
  • Derealization
  • Depersonalization
  • Novelty enhancement
  • Suggestibility enhancement
  • Creativity enhancement
  • Psychosis - The prolonged usage of THC may increase one's disposition to psychosis[41], particularly in vulnerable individuals with risk factors for psychotic illnesses (like a past or family history of schizophrenia).[42][43][44]

Visual effects

  • Colour enhancement
  • Acuity suppression - THC is known to decrease intraocular pressure. This can sometimes result in blurry vision for some people.
  • Geometry - Cannabis is capable of inconsistently inducing mild psychedelic geometry at extremely high doses within many users. Within many users who also regularly use psychedelics, however, it is capable of inducing these consistently in a visual style which seems to be an averaged out depiction of all the psychedelics one has used within the past. These rarely extend beyond level 4 and are considered to be mild, fine, small and zoomed out (but often well-defined).
  • Brightness alteration - THC has been shown to modulate the activity of cone cells in the eye. This can cause a increased sensitivity to light, causing ones vision to appear brighter than normal.

Auditory effects

Multi-sensory effects

Combinational effects

  • Psychedelics - When used in combination with psychedelics, cannabis is capable of intensifying and extending the duration of both the visual and cognitive effects with extreme efficiency. This should be used with caution if one is not experienced with psychedelics.
  • Dissociatives - When used in combination with dissociatives, the geometry, euphoria, dissociation and hallucinatory effects are often greatly enhanced.
  • Alcohol - When used in combination with alcohol, cannabis often creates feelings of extreme nausea, dizziness and changes in gravity. It is recommended that people smoke before drinking and not the other way around unless they are extremely cautious.

Forms

  • Whole flower and leaf is the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 22% THC.[45][46]

  • Kief is a powder which can be sifted from the leaves and flowers of cannabis plants and either consumed in powder form or compressed to produce cakes of hashish.[47]

  • Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha, or simply hash) is a concentrated resin cake or ball produced from pressed kief.

  • Tinctures are cannabinoids which have been extracted from cannabis plant matter using high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol).

  • Hash oil is obtained from the cannabis plant by solvent extraction, and contains the cannabinoids present in the highly concentrated natural oils of cannabis flowers and leaves.[48]

  • Cannabutter is one of many varieties of cannabis infusions owing to the variety of non-volatile solvents used. Examples of solvents used in this process are cocoa butter, dairy butter, cooking oil, glycerine, and skin moisturizers.

Strains

Types of cannabis
Sativa and indica are the two major types of cannabis plants which can mix together to create hybrid strains. Each strain has its own range of effects on the body and mind, resulting in a wide range of medicinal benefits.

Indica plants typically grow short and wide compared to sativa plants which grow tall and thin. Indica plants are better suited for indoor growing because of their short growth and sativa plants are better suited for outdoor growing because some strains can reach over 25 ft. in height.

The high produced from smoking indica bud is a strong physical "body high" that will make one sleepy or sedated and provides a deep relaxation feeling compared to a sativa high, which is known to be more energetic and uplifting.

Marijuana strains range from pure sativas to pure indicas with hybrid strains consisting of both indica and sativa (for example, 30% indica – 70% sativa, 50% – 50% combinations, or 80% indica – 20% sativa). Because sativa and indica buds have very different medicinal benefits and effects, certain strains can be targeted to better treat specific illnesses.

Methods of consumption

Cannabis is consumed in many different ways:[49]

  • Smoking typically involves inhaling vaporized cannabinoids ("smoke") from small pipes, bongs (portable versions of hookahs with water chamber), paper-wrapped joints, tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts, and other items.[50]
  • Vaporizers heat herbal cannabis to 165–190 °C (329–374 °F), causing the active ingredients to evaporate into a vapor without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 157 °C (315 °F) at 760 mmHg pressure).[51]
  • Cannabis tea contains relatively small concentrations of THC because THC is an oil (lipophilic) and is only slightly water-soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter).[52] Cannabis tea is made by first adding a saturated fat to hot water (e.g., cream or any milk except skim) with a small amount of cannabis.[53]
  • Edibles are cannabis added as an ingredient to one of a variety of foods.
  • Sublingual/buccal consumption typically involves the absorption of cannabinoids through the membranes inside the mouth (usually through a candy or tincture).
  • Tincture
  • Topical consumption typically involves the use of either a cream or lip balm containing cannabinoids absorbed through the skin.

  • A joint/spliff prior to rolling with a paper handmade filter on the left.

  • A forced-air vaporizer. The detachable balloon (top) fills with vapors that are then inhaled.

  • Edible weed brownies

Preparation methods

Preparation methods for this compound within our preparation index include:

Toxicity and harm potential

Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of cannabis[54]

Cannabis is non-addictive, is not known to cause brain damage, and has an extremely low toxicity relative to dose. There are relatively few physical side effects associated with acute cannabis exposure. Various studies have shown that in reasonable doses in a careful context, it presents no negative cognitive, psychiatric or toxic physical consequences of any sort.

It has often been recommended that those with severe pre-existing mental conditions should not ingest these substances due to the way they strongly increase one's current state of mind and emotions. Also, the prolonged usage of THC and other cannabinoids may increase one's disposition to mental illness and psychosis[55], particularly in vulnerable individuals with risk factors for psychotic illnesses (like a past or family history of schizophrenia).[56][57][58]

Lethal dosage

No fatal overdoses associated with cannabis use have been reported as of 2010.[59] A review published in the British Journal of Psychiatry in February 2001 said that "no deaths directly due to acute cannabis use have ever been reported."[60]

THC, the principal psychoactive constituent of the cannabis plant, has an extremely low toxicity and the amount that can enter the body through the consumption of cannabis plants poses no threat of death. In lab animal tests, scientists have had much difficulty administering a dose of THC that is high enough to be lethal. The dose of THC needed to kill 50% of tested rodents is very high,[61] and human deaths from overdose are unheard of.[62]

At present, it is estimated that the LD50 of cannabis is around 1:20,000 or 1:40,000. This means that, in order to induce death, a cannabis smoker would have to consume 20,000 to 40,000 times as much cannabis as is contained in one cannabis cigarette. A smoker would theoretically have to consume nearly 1,500 pounds of cannabis within about 15 minutes to induce a lethal response.

It is strongly recommended that one use harm reduction practices when using this drug.

Tolerance and addiction potential

Cannabis is mildly habit-forming. Research has shown the overall addiction potential for cannabis to be less than that for caffeine, tobacco, alcohol, cocaine or heroin, but slightly higher than that for psilocybin, mescaline, or LSD.

Dependence on cannabis is more common amongst heavy users. Marijuana use can lead to increased tolerance[63][64] and withdrawal symptoms when trying to stop.[65][66] Prolonged marijuana usage requires the user to consume higher doses of the drug to achieve a common desirable effect (known as a higher tolerance), and reinforce the body's metabolic systems for synthesizing and eliminating the drug more efficiently.[67]

Tolerance to many of the effects of cannabis develops with prolonged and repeated use. This results in users having to administer increasingly large doses to achieve the same effects. After that, it takes about 1 - 2 weeks for the tolerance to be reduced to half and 2 - 3 weeks to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Cannabis presents cross-tolerance with all cannabinoids, meaning that after the consumption of cannabis all cannabinoids will have a reduced effect. The mechanisms that create this tolerance to THC are thought to involve changes in cannabinoid receptor function.

Legal issues

Map showing cannabis laws worldwide

See also

External links

References

  1. ↑ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marijuana_(word)
  2. ↑ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/weed
  3. ↑ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pot
  4. ↑ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/grass
  5. ↑ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/herb
  6. ↑ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (6th ed.), Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-920687-2
  7. ↑ Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries (2007). Spanish Word Histories and Mysteries: English Words That Come From Spanish. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-547-35021-9.
  8. ↑ Ethan B Russo (2013). Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential. Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-136-61493-4. | http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qH-2Lj9x7L4C&pg=PP28&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
  9. ↑ Antidepressant-like effect of ?9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids isolated from Cannabis sativa L | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2866040/
  10. ↑ Distinct Effects of ?9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol on Neural Activation During Emotional Processing | http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=482939
  11. ↑ 13.Jump up ^ Martin Booth (2003). Cannabis: A History. Transworld. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4090-8489-1.
  12. ↑ http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_law.shtml
  13. ↑ http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html
  14. ↑ http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_biggest_market.pdf
  15. ↑ Cannabinoids in medicine: A review of their therapeutic potential | http://www.doctordeluca.com/Library/WOD/WPS3-MedMj/CannabinoidsMedMetaAnalysis06.pdf
  16. ↑ Phytocannabinoids, CNS cells and development: A dead issue? | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2009.00102.x/abstract
  17. ↑ Cannabinoid Analgesia as a Potential New Therapeutic Option in the Treatment of Chronic Pain | http://aop.sagepub.com/content/40/2/251
  18. ↑ The Pharmacologic and Clinical Effects of Medical Cannabis | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/phar.1187/abstract
  19. ↑ Cannabinoids in medicine: A review of their therapeutic potential | http://www.doctordeluca.com/Library/WOD/WPS3-MedMj/CannabinoidsMedMetaAnalysis06.pdf
  20. ↑ Cannabinoids in medicine: A review of their therapeutic potential | http://www.doctordeluca.com/Library/WOD/WPS3-MedMj/CannabinoidsMedMetaAnalysis06.pdf
  21. ↑ Medical Consequences of Marijuana Use: A Review of Current Literature | http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11920-013-0419-7
  22. ↑ Cannabidiol is an allosteric modulator at mu- and delta-opioid receptors
  23. ↑ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Endogenous Cannabinoid Anandamide Directly Potentiate the Function of Glycine Receptors | http://molpharm.aspetjournals.org/content/69/3/991
  24. ↑ Mechoulam, R. (1984). Cannabinoids as therapeutic agents. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-5772-1.
  25. ↑ How Marijuana Works | http://science.howstuffworks.com/marijuana4.htm
  26. ↑ How Marijuana Works | http://science.howstuffworks.com/marijuana4.htm
  27. ↑ The Pharmacologic and Clinical Effects of Medical Cannabis | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/phar.1187/abstract;jsessionid=1E004D7B7E2B5CA792E75A6E83EEC59C.f03t01
  28. ↑ The Therapeutic Potential of Cannabis and Cannabinoids | http://www.aerzteblatt.de/int/archive/article?id=127603
  29. ↑ Cardiovascular Effects of Cannabis | http://www.idmu.co.uk/canncardio.htm
  30. ↑ Is Marijuana an Effective Treatment for Glaucoma? | http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/view.answers.php?questionID=000140
  31. ↑ Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Cannabis Treatment for Chronic Pain | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00703.x/abstract
  32. ↑ Cannabinoids for treatment of chronic non-cancer pain; a systematic review of randomized trials | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2125.2011.03970.x/abstract
  33. ↑ Charlotte Figi: The Girl Who is Changing Medical Marijuana Laws Across America | http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/charlotte-figi-girl-who-changing-medical-marijuana-laws-across-america-1453547
  34. ↑ On the frontier of medical pot to treat boy's epilepsy | http://articles.latimes.com/2012/sep/13/local/la-me-customized-marijuana-20120914
  35. ↑ Report of a parent survey of cannabidiol-enriched cannabis use in pediatric treatment-resistant epilepsy | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4157067/
  36. ↑ Cannabidiol displays antiepileptiform and antiseizure properties in vitro and in vivo. | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19906779/
  37. ↑ An electrophysiological analysis of the anticonvulsant action of cannabidiol on limbic seizures in conscious rats. | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/477630
  38. ↑ Δ⁹-Tetrahydrocannabivarin suppresses in vitro epileptiform and in vivo seizure activity in adult rats. | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20196794
  39. ↑ Cannabinoids: Defending the Epileptic Brain | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1176332/
  40. ↑ Feinberg, I., Jones, R, Walker JM, Cavness, C, March, J. (1975). Effects of high dosage delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on sleep patterns in man. Clin Parmacol Ther. 1975; 17(4):458-66.
  41. ↑ http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/184/2/110.short
  42. ↑ Every-Palmer, S. Synthetic cannabinoid use and psychosis: an explorative study. Journal of Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2011.
  43. ↑ http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0736467910008802
  44. ↑ http://journals.lww.com/pec-online/Abstract/2010/06000/A_Teenager_With_Agitation__Higher_Than_She_Should.16.aspx
  45. ↑ High Times in Ag Science: Marijuana More Potent Than Ever | http://www.wired.com/2008/12/high-times-in-a/
  46. ↑ http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Marijuana
  47. ↑ http://www.cannabisculture.com/articles/4220.html
  48. ↑ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9Z1QZ5NIEIC&pg=PA78&redir_esc=y
  49. ↑ The Cultural/Subcultural Contexts of Marijuana Use at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century | http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KFMtFv2tmbYC&pg=PA82&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
  50. ↑ Allan Tasman; Jerald Kay; Jeffrey A. Lieberman; Michael B. First, Mario Maj (2011). Psychiatry. John Wiley & Sons. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-119-96540-4. | http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vVG7zz7eaxcC&pg=RA9-PT2217&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
  51. ↑ Cannabis and Cannabis Extracts: Greater Than the Sum of Their Parts? | http://www.cannabis-med.org/data/pdf/2001-03-04-7.pdf
  52. ↑ Dronabinol | http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/1972-08-3
  53. ↑ Marijuana medical handbook | http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OuAHxDKcpS8C&pg=PA182&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
  54. ↑ Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse | http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673607604644
  55. ↑ http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/184/2/110.short
  56. ↑ Every-Palmer, S. Synthetic cannabinoid use and psychosis: an explorative study. Journal of Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2011.
  57. ↑ http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0736467910008802
  58. ↑ http://journals.lww.com/pec-online/Abstract/2010/06000/A_Teenager_With_Agitation__Higher_Than_She_Should.16.aspx
  59. ↑ Does cannabis use increase the risk of death? Systematic review of epidemiological evidence on adverse effects of cannabis use | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2009.00149.x/abstract
  60. ↑ Pharmacology and effects of cannabis: a brief review | http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/178/2/101
  61. ↑ Adverse effects of cannabis | http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(98)05021-1/fulltext
  62. ↑ Tetrahydrocannabinols in clinical and forensic toxicology | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16225128
  63. ↑ The Pharmacologic and Clinical Effects of Medical Cannabis | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/phar.1187/abstract
  64. ↑ The Effect of Cannabis Compared with Alcohol on Driving | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1080/10550490902786934/abstract
  65. ↑ Medical Consequences of Marijuana Use: A Review of Current Literature | http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11920-013-0419-7
  66. ↑ State of the Art Treatments for Cannabis Dependence | http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193953X12000202
  67. ↑ MARIJUANA AND MEDICINE Assessing the Science Base | http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6376
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